CA Foundation Questions & Answers for May, 2022 & November, 2022 Exams

CA Foundation – Business Laws

 

 

CA Foundation

Blast from the Past

Coverage – Previous Years Q & A, RTP & MTP

Indian Partnership Act, 1932

 

  1. What do you mean by “Particular Partnership” under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932?

Ans. Particular partnership: A partnership may be organized for the prosecution of a single adventure as well as for the conduct of a continuous business. Where a person becomes a partner with another person in any particular adventure or undertaking, the partnership is called ‘particular partnership’.

A partnership, constituted for a single adventure or undertaking is, subject to any agreement, dissolved by the completion of the adventure or undertaking.

 

  1. Who is a nominal partner under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 ? What are his liabilities?

Ans. Nominal Partner: A person who lends his name to the firm, without having any real    

 interest in it, is called a nominal partner.

Liabilities: He is not entitled to share the profits of the firm. Neither he invests in the firm nor takes part in the conduct of the business. He is, however liable to third parties for all acts of the firm.

  1. “Business carried on by all or any of them acting for all.” Discuss the statement under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932.

Ans. Business carried on by all or any of them acting for all: The business must be carried on by all the partners or by anyone or more of the partners acting for all. In other words, there should be a binding contract of mutual agency between the partners.

An act of one partner in the course of the business of the firm is in fact an act of all partners. Each partner carrying on the business is the principal as well as the agent for all the other partners. He is an agent in so far as he can bind the other partners by his acts and he is a principal to the extent that he is bound by the act of other partners.

It may be noted that the true test of partnership is mutual agency. If the element of mutual agency is absent, then there will be no partner ship.

In KD Kamath & Co., the Supreme Court has held that the two essential conditions to be satisfied are that:

  • there should be an agreement to share the profits as well as the losses of business; and
  • the business must be carried on by all or any of them acting for all, within the meaning of the definition of ‘partnership’ under section

The fact that the exclusive power and control, by agreement of the parties, is vested in one partner or the further circumstance that only one partner can operate the bank accounts or borrow on behalf of the firm are not destructive of the theory of partnership provided the two essential conditions, mentioned earlier, are satisfied.

 

  1. M, N and P were partners in a firm. The firm ordered JR Limited to supply the furniture. P dies, and M and N continues the business in the firm’s name. The firm did not give any notice about P’s death to the public or the persons dealing with the firm. The furniture was delivered to the firm after P’s death, fact about his death was known to them at the time of delivery. Afterwards the firm became insolvent and failed to pay the price of furniture to JR Limited.

Explain with reasons:

  • Whether P’s private estate is liable for the price of furniture purchased by the firm?
  • Whether does it make any difference if JR Limited supplied the furniture to the firm believing that all the three partners are alive?

Ans. According to Section 35 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, where under a contract between the partners the firm is not dissolved by the death of a partner, the estate of a deceased partner is not liable for any act of the firm done after his death.

Further, in order that the estate of the deceased partner may be absolved from liability for the future obligations of the firm, it is not necessary to give any notice either to the public or the persons having dealings with the firm.

In the given question, JR Limited has supplied furniture to the partnership firm, after P’s death. The firm did not give notice about P’s death to public or people dealing with the firm. Afterwards, the firm became insolvent and could not pay JR Limited.

In the light of the facts of the case and provisions of law:

  • Since the delivery of furniture was made after P’s death, his estate would not be liable for the debt of the firm. A suit for goods sold and delivered would not lie against the representatives of the deceased partner. This is because there was no debt due in respect of the goods in P’s
  • It will not make any difference even if JR Limited supplied furniture to the firm believing that all the three partners are alive, as it is not necessary to give any notice either to the public or the persons having dealings with the firm, so the estate of the deceased partner may be absolved from liability for the future obligations of the

 

  1. What do you mean by ‘Partnership at will’ as per the Indian Partnership Act, 1932?

Ans. Partnership at will under the Partnership Act, 1932

According to Section 7 of the Act, partnership at will is a partnership when:

  • no fixed period has been agreed upon for the duration of the partnership; and
  • there is no provision made as to the determination of the

Where a partnership entered into for a fixed term is continued after the expiry of such term, it is to be treated as having become a partnership at will.

 

 

  1. Comment on ‘the right to expel partner must be exercised in good faith’ under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932.

Ans. A partner may not be expelled from a firm by a majority of partners except in exercise, in good faith, of powers conferred by contract between the partners. It is, thus, essential that:

  • the power of expulsion must have existed in a contract between the partners;
  • the power has been exercised by a majority of the partners; and
  • it has been exercised in good

 

If all these conditions are not present, the expulsion is not deemed to be in bona fide interest of the business of the firm.

  1. Referring to the Provisions of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, answer the following:
  • What are the consequences of Non-Registration of Partnership firm?
  • What are the rights which won’t be affected by Non-Registration of Partnership firm?

Ans.

(i) Consequences of Non-registration of partnership firm:

Under Section 69 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 non-registration of partnership gives rise to a number of disabilities. Though registration of firms is not compulsory, yet the consequences or disabilities of non-registration have a persuasive pressure for their registration. Following are the consequences:

  • No suit in a civil court by firm or other co-partners against third party: The firm or any other person on its behalf cannot bring an action against the third party for breach of contract entered into by the
  • No relief to partners for set-off of claim: If an action is brought against the firm by a third party, then neither the firm nor the partner can claim any set-off, if the suit be valued for more than ` 100 or pursue other proceedings to enforce the rights arising from any
  • Aggrieved partner cannot bring legal action against other partner or the firm: A partner of an unregistered firm (or any other person on his behalf) is precluded from bringing legal action against the firm or any person alleged to be or to have been a partner in the
  • Third-party can sue the firm: In case of an unregistered firm, an action can be brought against the firm by a third

 

  • Non-registration of a firm does not, however, affect the following rights:
    1. The right of third parties to sue the firm or any
    2. The right of partners to sue for the dissolution of the firm or for the settlement of the accounts of a dissolved firm, or for realization of the property of a dissolved
    3. The power of an Official Assignees, Receiver of Court to release the property of the insolvent partner and to bring an
    4. The right to sue or claim a set-off if the value of suit does not exceed ` 100 in

 

  1. Discuss the liability of a partner for the act of the firm and liability of firm for act of a partner to third parties as per Indian Partnership Act, 1932.

Ans. Liability of a partner for acts of the firm (Section 25 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932): Every partner is liable, jointly with all the other partners and also severally, for all acts of the firm done while he is a partner. The partners are jointly and severally responsible to third parties for all acts which come under the scope of their express or implied authority. This is because that all the acts done within the scope of authority are the acts done towards the business of the firm.

The expression ‘act of firm’ connotes any act or omission by all the partners or by any partner or agent of the firm, which gives rise to a right enforceable by or against the firm. Again in order to bring a case under Section 25, it is necessary that the act of the firm, in respect of which liability is brought to be enforced against a party, must have been done while he was a partner.

 

Liability of the firm for wrongful acts of a partner and for misapplication by partners (Sections 26 & 27 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932):

Where, by the wrongful act or omission of a partner in the ordinary course of the business of a firm, or with the authority of his partners, loss or injury is caused to any third party, or any penalty is incurred, the firm is liable therefor to the same extent as the partner.

a partner acting within his apparent authority receives money or property from a third party and misapplies it, or a firm in the course of its business receives money or property from a third party, and the money or property is misapplied by any of the partners while it is in the custody of the firm, the firm is liable to make good the loss.

 

  1. When the continuing guarantee can be revoked under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932?

Ans. Revocation of continuing guarantee (Section 38 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932)

According to section 38, a continuing guarantee given to a firm or to third party in respect of the transaction of a firm is, in the absence of an agreement to the contrary, revoked as to future transactions from the date of any change in the constitution of the firm. Such change may occur by the death, or retirement of a partner, or by introduction of a new partner.

 

  1. What do you mean by Goodwill as per the provisions of Indian Partnership Act,1932?

Ans. Goodwill: The term “Goodwill” has not been defined under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932. Section 14 of the Act lays down that goodwill of a business is to be regarded as a property of the firm.

 

Goodwill may be defined as the value of the reputation of a business house in respect of profits expected in future over and above the normal level of profits earned by undertaking belonging to the same class of business.

 

  1. With reference to the provisions of Indian partnership Act, 1932 explain the various effects of insolvency of a partner.

Ans. Effects of insolvency of a partner (Section 34 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932):

  • The insolvent partner cannot be continued as a
  • He will be ceased to be a partner from the very date on which the order of adjudication is
  • The estate of the insolvent partner is not liable for the acts of the firm done after the date of order of
  • The firm is also not liable for any act of the insolvent partner after the date of the order of adjudication,
  • Ordinarily, the insolvency of a partner results in dissolution of a firm; but the partners are competent to agree among themselves that the adjudication of a partner as an insolvent will not give rise to dissolution of the

 

  1. Master X was introduced to the benefits of partnership of M/s ABC & Co. with the consent of all partners. After attaining majority, more than six months elapsed and he failed to give a public notice as to whether he elected to become or not to become a partner in the firm. Later on, Mr. L, a supplier of material to M/s ABC & Co., filed a suit against M/s ABC & Co. for recovery of the debt due.

In the light of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, explain:

  • To what extent X will be liable if he failed to give public notice after attaining majority?
  • Can L recover his debt from X?

Ans. As per the provisions of Section 30(5) of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, at any time within six months of his attaining majority, or of his obtaining knowledge that he had been admitted to the benefits of partnership, whichever date is later, such person may give public notice that he has elected to become or that he has elected not to become a partner in the firm, and such notice shall determine his position as regards the firm.

However, if he fails to give such notice, he shall become a partner in the firm on the expiry of the said six months.

If the minor becomes a partner by his failure to give the public notice within specified time, his rights and liabilities as given in Section 30(7) are as follows:

  • He becomes personally liable to third parties for all acts of the firm done since he was admitted to the benefits of partnership.
  • His share in the property and the profits of the firm remains the same to which he was entitled as a
  • In the instant case, since, X has failed to give a public notice, he shall become a partner in the M/s ABC & Co. and becomes personally liable to Mr. L, a third
  • In the light of the provisions of Section 30(7) read with Section 30(5) of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, since X has failed to give public notice that he has not elected to not to become a partner within six months, he will be deemed to be a partner after the period of the above six months and therefore, L can recover his debt from him also in the same way as he can recover from any other partner.

 

  1. “Dissolution of a firm is different from dissolution of Partnership”. Discuss.

Ans. DISSOLUTION OF FIRM VS. DISSOLUTION OF PARTNERSHIP

 

S.

NO.

BASIS            OF DIFFERENCE DISSOLUTION                OF FIRM DISSOLUTION OF PARTNERSHIP
1. Continuation of business It                involves

discontinuation                        of

business                        in

partnership.

It does not affect continuation of business. It involves only reconstitution of the firm.
2. Winding up It involves winding up of the firm and requires realization of assets                      and

settlement                        of liabilities.

It involves only reconstitution and requires only revaluation of assets and liabilities of the firm.
3. Order of court A firm may be dissolved by the order of the court. Dissolution of partnership is not ordered by the court.
4. Scope It             necessarily involves dissolution of partnership. It may or may not involve dissolution of firm.
5. Final closure of books It involves final closure of books of the firm. It does not involve final closure of the books.

 

 

  1. What is the provision related to the effect of notice to an acting partner of the firm as per the Indian Partnership Act, 1932? (May, 19 – 2 Marks)

Ans. Effect of notice to an acting partner of the firm

According to Section 24 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, notice to a partner who habitually acts in the business of the firm of any matter relating to the affairs of the firm operates as notice to the firm, except in the case of a fraud on the firm committed by or with the consent of that partner.

Thus, the notice to one is equivalent to the notice to the rest of the partners of the firm, just as a notice to an agent is notice to his principal. This notice must be actual and not constructive. It must further relate to the firm’s business. Only then it would constitute a notice to the firm.

 

  1. Discuss the provisions regarding personal profits earned by a partner under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932?

Ans. Personal Profit earned by Partners (Section 16 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932)

According to section 16, subject to contract between the partners:

  • If a partner derives any profit for himself from any transaction of the firm, or from the use of the property or business connection of the firm or the firm name, he shall account for that profit and pay it to the firm;
  • If a partner carries on any business of the same nature and competing with that of the firm, he shall account for and pay to the firm all profits made by him in that

 

  1. Whether a group of persons is or is not a firm, or whether a person is or not a partner in a firm.” Explain the mode of determining existence of partnership as per the Indian Partnership Act, 1932? (May, 19 – 4 Marks)

Ans. Mode of determining existence of partnership (Section 6 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932): In determining whether a group of persons is or is not a firm, or whether a person is or not a partner in a firm, regard shall be had to the real relation between the parties, as shown by all relevant facts taken together.

For determining the existence of partnership, it  must be proved.

  1. There was an agreement between all the  persons concerned
  2. The agreement was to share the profits of a business and
  3. the business was carried on by all or any of them acting for
  1. Agreement: Partnership is created by agreement and not by status (Section 5). The relation of partnership arises from contract and not from status; and in particular, the members of a Hindu Undivided family carrying on a family business as such are not partners in such
  2. Sharing of Profit: Sharing of profit is an essential element to constitute a But, it is only a prima facie evidence and not conclusive evidence, in that regard. The sharing of profits or of gross returns accruing from property by persons holding joint or common interest in the property would not by itself make such persons partners. Although the right to participate in profits is a strong test of partnership, and there may be cases where, upon a simple participation in profits, there is a partnership, yet whether the relation does or does not exist must depend upon the whole contract between the parties.
  3. Agency: Existence of Mutual Agency which is the cardinal principle of partnership law, is very much helpful in reaching a conclusion in this regard. Each partner carrying on the business is the principal as well as an agent of other partners. So, the act of one partner done on behalf of firm, binds all the partners. If the elements of mutual agency relationship exist between the parties constituting a group formed with a view to earn profits by running a business, a partnership may be deemed to

 

  1. M/s XYZ & Associates, a partnership firm with X, Y, Z as senior partners were engaged in the business of carpet manufacturing and exporting to foreign countries. On 25th August, 2016, they inducted Mr. G, an expert in the field of carpet manufacturing as their partner. On 10th January 2018, Mr. G was blamed for unauthorized activities and thus expelled from the partnership by united approval of rest of the partners.
    • Examine whether action by the partners was justified or not?
    • What should have the factors to be kept in mind prior expelling a partner from the firm by other partners according to the provisions of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932?

 

Ans. Expulsion of a Partner (Section 33 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932):

A partner may not be expelled from a firm by a majority of partners except in exercise, in good faith, of powers conferred by contract between the partners.

The test of good faith as required under Section 33(1) includes three things:

  • The expulsion must be in the interest of the
  • The partner to be expelled is served with a
  • He is given an opportunity of being

If a partner is otherwise expelled, the expulsion is null and void.

  • Action by the partners of M/s XYZ & Associates, a partnership firm to expel Mr. G from the partnership was justified as he was expelled by united approval of the partners exercised in good faith to protect the interest of the partnership against the unauthorized activities charged against Mr. G. A proper notice and opportunity of being heard has to be given to G.
  • The following are the factors to be kept in mind prior expelling a partner from the firm by other partners:
    • the power of expulsion must have existed in a contract between the partners;
    • the power has been exercised by a majority of the partners; and
    • it has been exercised in good

 

  1. “Indian Partnership Act does not make the registration of firms compulsory nor does it impose any penalty for non-registration.” Explain. Discuss the various disabilities or disadvantages that a non-registered partnership firm can face in brief? (May, 19 – 4 Marks)

Ans. Under the English Law, the registration of firms is compulsory. Therefore, there is a penalty for non-registration of firms. But the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 does not make the registration of firms compulsory nor does it impose any penalty for non-registration. The registration of a partnership is optional and one partner cannot compel another partner to join in the registration of the firm. It is not essential that the firm should be registered from the very beginning.

However, under Section 69, non-registration of partnership gives rise to a number of disabilities which are as follows:

  • No suit in a civil court by firm or other co-partners against third party: The firm or any other person on its behalf cannot bring an action against the third party for

breach of contract entered into by the firm, unless the firm is registered and the persons suing are or have been shown in the register of firms as partners in the firm.

  • No relief to partners for set-off of claim: If an action is brought against the firm by a third party, then neither the firm nor the partner can claim any set-off, if the suit be valued for more than ` 100 or pursue other proceedings to enforce the rights arising from any
  • Aggrieved partner cannot bring legal action against other partner or the firm: A partner of an unregistered firm (or any other person on his behalf) is precluded from bringing legal action against the firm or any person alleged to be or to have been a partner in the
  • Third party can sue the firm: In case of an unregistered firm, an action can be brought against the firm by a third

 

 

RTP NOV- 2021

The Indian Partnership Act, 1932

  1. A, B and C are partners of a partnership firm carrying on the business of construction of B who himself was a wholesale dealer of iron bars was entrusted with the work of selection of iron bars after examining its quality. As a wholesaler, B is well aware of the market conditions. Current market price of iron bar for construction is ` 350 per Kilogram. B already had 1000 Kg of iron bars in stock which he had purchased before price hike in the market for ` 200 per Kg. He supplied iron bars to the firm without the firm realising the purchase cost. Is B liable to pay the firm the extra money he made, or he doesn’t have to inform the firm as it is his own business and he has not taken any amount more than the current prevailing market price of ` 350? Assume there is no contract between the partners regarding the above.

Ans. According to section 16 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, subject to contract between partners –

  • if a partner derives any profit for himself from any transaction of the firm, or from the use of the property or business connection of the firm or the firm name, he shall account for that profit and pay it to the firm;
  • if a partner carries on any business of the same nature as and competing with that of the firm, he shall account for and pay to the firm all profits made by him in that

In the given scenario, Mr. B had sold iron bar to the firm at the current prevailing market rate of ` 350 per Kg though he had stock with him which he bought for ` 200 per Kg. Hence, he made an extra profit of ` 150 per Kg. This is arising purely out of transactions with the firm. Hence, Mr. B is accountable to the firm for the extra profit earned thereby.

 

  1. Mr. A (transferor) transfers his share in a partnership firm to Mr. B (transferee). Mr. B felt that the book of accounts was displaying only a small amount as profit inspite of a huge turnover. He wanted to inspect the book of accounts of the firm arguing that it is his entitlement as a transferee. However, the other partners were of the opinion that Mr. B cannot challenge the books of accounts. As an advisor, help them solve the issue applying the necessary provisions from the Indian Partnership Act, 1932.

Ans. As per Section 29 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, during the continuance of the business, a transferee is not entitled

  • To interfere with the conduct of the business
  • To require the accounts
  • To inspect the books of the firm

He is only entitled to his share of profit.

Keeping the above points, in the given case, since the partnership business is in continuance, Mr. B is bound to accept the profits as agreed to by the partners. He cannot challenge the accounts. He is only entitled to receive the share of profits of Mr. A (transferring partner).

 

  1. MN partnership firm has two different lines of manufacturing business. One line of business is the manufacturing of Ajinomoto, a popular seasoning & taste enhancer for food. Another line of business is the manufacture of paper plates & cups. One fine day, a law is passed by the Government banning Ajinomoto’ use in food and to stop its manufacturing making it an unlawful business because it is injurious to health. Should the firm compulsorily dissolve under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932? How will its other line of business (paper plates & cups) be affected?

Ans. According to Section 41  of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, a firm is  compulsorily dissolved;

  1. by the adjudication of all the partners or of all the partners but one as insolvent, or
  2. by the happening of any event which makes it unlawful for the business of the firm to be carried on or for the partners to carry it on in

However, where more than one separate adventure or undertaking is carried on by the firm, the illegality of one or more shall not of itself cause the dissolution of the firm in respect of its lawful adventures and undertakings.

Here, MN has to compulsorily dissolve due to happening of law which bans the usage of ajinomoto. Else the business of the firm shall be treated as unlawful.

However, the illegality of ajinomoto business will in no way affect the legality or dissolution of the other line of business (paper plates & cups). MN can continue with paper plates and cup manufacture.

 

  1. Whether a minor may be admitted in the business of a partnership firm? Explain the rights of a minor in the partnership firm.

Ans. A minor cannot be bound by a contract because a minor’s contract is void and not merely voidable. Therefore, a minor cannot become a partner in a firm because partnership is founded on a contract. Though a minor cannot be a partner in a firm, he can nonetheless be admitted to the benefits of partnership under Section 30 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932. In other words, he can be validly given a share in the partnership profits. When this has been done and it can be done with the consent of all the partners then the rights and liabilities of such a partner will be governed under Section 30 as follows:

Rights:

  • A minor partner has a right to his agreed share of the profits and of the
  • He can have access to, inspect and copy the accounts of the
  • He can sue the partners for accounts or for payment of his share but only when severing his connection with the firm, and not
  • On attaining majority, he may within 6 months elect to become a partner or not to become a partner. If he elects to become a partner, then he is entitled to the share to which he was entitled as a minor. If he does not, then his share is not liable for any acts of the firm after the date of the public notice served to that

May, 2021

 

  1. Explain in detail the circumstances which lead to liability of firm for misapplication by partners as per provisions of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932.

Ans. Liability of Firm for Misapplication by Partners (Section 27 of Indian Partnership Act, 1932): Where-

  • a partner acting within his apparent authority receives money or property from a third party and misapplies it, or
  • a firm in the course of its business receives money or property from a third party, and the money or property is misapplied by any of the partners while it is in the custody of the firm, the firm is liable to make good the

Analysis of section 27:

It may be observed that the workings of the two clauses of Section 27 are designed to bring out clearly an important point of distinction between the two categories of cases of misapplication of money by partners.

Clause (a) covers the case where a partner acts within his authority and due to his authority as a partner, he receives money or property belonging to a third party and misapplies that

money or property. For this provision to be attracted, it is not necessary that the money should have actually come into the custody of the firm.

On the other hand, the provision of clause (b) would be attracted when such money or property has come into the custody of the firm and it is misapplied by any of the partners.

The firm would be liable in both the cases.

 

  1. M, N and P were partners in a firm. The firm ordered JR Limited to supply the furniture. P dies, and M and N continues the business in the firm’s name. the firm did not give any notice about P’s death to the public or the persons dealing with the firm. The furniture was delivered to the firm after P’s death, fact about his death was known to them at the time of delivery. Afterwards the firm became insolvent and failed to pay the price of furniture to JR Limited.

Explain with reasons:

  • Whether P’s private estate is liable for the price of furniture purchased by the firm?
  • Whether does it make any difference if JR Limited supplied the furniture to the firm believing that all the three partners are alive?

Ans. According to section 35 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, where under a contract between the partners the firm is not dissolved by the death of a partner, the estate of a deceased partner is not liable for any act of the firm done after his death.

Further, in order that the estate of the deceased partner may be absolved from liability for the future obligations of the firm, it is not necessary to give any notice either to the public or the persons having dealings with the firm.

In the given question, JR Limited has supplied furniture to the partnership firm, after P’s death. The firm did not give notice about P’s death to public or people dealing with the firm. Afterwards, the firm became insolvent and could not pay JR Limited.

In the light of the facts of the case and provisions of law:

  • Since the delivery of furniture was made after P’s death, his estate would not be liable for the debt of the firm. A suit for goods sold and delivered would not lie against the representatives of the deceased partner. This is because there was no debt due in respect of the goods in P’s lifetime.
  • It will not make any difference even if JR Limited supplied furniture to the firm believing that all the three partners are alive, as it is not necessary to give any notice either to the public or the persons having dealings with the firm, so the estate of the deceased partner may be absolved from liability for the future obligations of the

 

  1. Mr. A (transferor) transfer his share in a partnership firm to Mr. B (transferee). Mr. B is not entitled for few rights and privileges as Mr. A (transferor) is entitled therefor. Discuss in brief the points for which Mr. B is not entitled during continuance of partnership?

Ans. As per Section 29 of Indian Partnership Act, 1932, a transfer by a partner of his interest in the firm, either absolute or by mortgage, or by the creation by him of a charge on such interest, does not entitle the transferee, during the continuance of the firm, to interfere in the conduct of business, or to require accounts, or to inspect the books of the firm, but entitles the transferee only to receive the share of profits of the transferring partner, and the transferee shall accept the account of profits agreed to by the partners.

In the given case during the continuance of partnership, such transferee Mr. B is not entitled:

  • to interfere with the conduct of the
  • to require
  • to inspect books of the

However, Mr. B is only entitled to receive the share of the profits of the transferring partner and he is bound to accept the profits as agreed to by the partners, i.e. he cannot challenge the accounts.

 

  1. “Indian Partnership Act does not make the registration of firms compulsory nor does it impose any penalty for non-registration.” In light of the given statement, discuss the consequences of non-registration of the partnership firms in India?

Ans. It is true to say that Indian Partnership Act, 1932 does not make the registration of firms compulsory nor does it impose any penalty for non-registration.

Following are consequences of Non-registration of Partnership Firms in India:

The Indian Partnership Act, 1932 does not make the registration of firms compulsory nor does it impose any penalty for non-registration. However, under Section 69, non- registration of partnership gives rise to a number of disabilities which we shall presently discuss. Although registration of firms is not compulsory, yet the consequences or disabilities of non-registration have a persuasive pressure for their registration. These disabilities briefly are as follows:

  • No suit in a civil court by firm or other co-partners against third party: The firm or any other person on its behalf cannot bring an action against the third party for breach of contract entered into by the firm, unless the firm is registered and the persons suing are or have been shown in the register of firms as partners in the firm. In other words, a registered firm can only file a suit against a third party and the persons suing have been in the register of firms as partners in the
  • No relief to partners for set-off of claim: If an action is brought against the firm by a third party, then neither the firm nor the partner can claim any set-off, if the suit be valued for more than ` 100 or pursue other proceedings to enforce the rights arising from any
  • Aggrieved partner cannot bring legal action against other partner or the firm: A partner of an unregistered firm (or any other person on his behalf) is precluded from bringing legal action against the firm or any person alleged to be or to have been a partner in the firm. But, such a person may sue for dissolution of the firm or for accounts and realization of his share in the firm’s property where the firm is
  • Third party can sue the firm: In case of an unregistered firm, an action can be brought against the firm by a third

 

 

November, 2020 – RTP

 

  1. Explain the provisions of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 relating to the creation of Partnership by holding out.

Ans. Partnership by holding out is also known as partnership by estoppel. Where a man holds himself out as a partner, or allows others to do it, he is then stopped from denying the character he has assumed and upon the faith of which creditors may be presumed to have acted.

A person may himself, by his words or conduct have induced others to believe that he is a partner or he may have allowed others to represent him as a partner. The result in both the cases is identical.

Example: X and Y are partners in a partnership firm. X introduced A, a manager, as his partner to Z. A remained silent. Z, a trader believing A as partner supplied 100 T.V sets to the firm on credit. After expiry of credit period, Z did not get amount of T.V sets sold to the partnership firm. Z filed a suit against X and A for the recovery of price . Here, in the given case, A, the Manager is also liable for the price because he becomes a partner by holding out (Section 28, Indian Partnership Act, 1932).

It is only the person to whom the representation has been made and who has acted thereon that has right to enforce liability arising out of ‘holding out’.

 

  1. Master X was introduced to the benefits of partnership of M/s ABC & Co. with the consent of all partners. After attaining majority, more than six months elapsed and he failed to give a public notice as to whether he elected to become or not to become a partner in the firm. Later on, Mr. L, a supplier of material to M/s ABC & Co., filed a suit against M/s ABC & Co. for recovery of the debt due.

In the light of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, explain:

  • To what extent X will be liable if he failed to give public notice after attaining majority?
  • Can L recover his debt from X?

 

Ans. As per the provisions of Section 30(5) of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, at any time within six months of his attaining majority, or of his obtaining knowledge that he had been admitted to the benefits of partnership, whichever date is later, such person may give public notice that he has elected to become or that he has elected not to become a partner in the firm, and such notice shall determine his position as regards the firm.

However, if he fails to give such notice, he shall become a partner in the firm on the expiry of the said six months.

If the minor becomes a partner by his failure to give the public notice within specified time, his rights and liabilities as given in Section 30(7) are as follows:

  • He becomes personally liable to third parties for all acts of the firm done since he was admitted to the benefits of
  • His share in the property and the profits of the firm remains the same to which he was entitled as a
    • In the instant case, since, X has failed to give a public notice, he shall become a partner in the M/s ABC & Co. and becomes personally liable to Mr. L, a third
    • In the light of the provisions of Section 30(7) read with Section 30(5) of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, since X has failed to give public notice that he has not elected to not to become a partner within six months, he will be deemed to be a partner after the period of the above six months and therefore, L can recover his debt from him also in the same way as he can recover from any other partner.

 

May, 2020- RTP

 

  1. Explain the following kinds of partnership under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932:
  • Partnership at will
  • Particular partnership

 

Ans. Partnership at will: According to Section 7 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, partnership at will is a partnership when:

  1. no fixed period has been agreed upon for the duration of the partnership; and
  2. there is no provision made as to the determination of the

These two conditions must be satisfied before a partnership can be regarded as a partnership at will. But, where there is an agreement between the partners either for the duration of the partnership or for the determination of the partnership, the partnership is not partnership at will.

Where a partnership entered into for a fixed term is continued after the expiry of such term, it is to be treated as having become a partnership at will.

A partnership at will may be dissolved by any partner by giving notice in writing to all the other partners of his intention to dissolve the same.

(ii) Particular partnership: A partnership may be organized for the prosecution of a single adventure as well as for the conduct of a continuous business. Where a person becomes a partner with another person in any particular adventure or undertaking the partnership is called ‘particular partnership’.

A partnership, constituted for a single adventure or undertaking is, subject to any agreement, dissolved by the completion of the adventure or undertaking.

 

  1. “Partner indeed virtually embraces the character of both a principal and an agent”. Describe the said statement keeping in view of the provisions of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932.

Ans. “Partner indeed virtually embraces the character of both a principal and an agent”: Subject to the provisions of section 18 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, a partner is the agent of the firm for the purposes of the business of the firm.

A partnership is the relationship between the partners who have agreed to share the profits of the business carried on by all or any of them acting for all (Section 4). This definition suggests that any of the partners can be the agent of the others.

Section 18 clarifies this position by providing that, subject to the provisions of the Act, a partner is the agent of the firm for the purpose of the business of the firm. The partner indeed virtually embraces the character of both a principal and an agent. So far as he acts for himself and in his own interest in the common concern of the partnership, he may properly be deemed as a principal and so far as he acts for his partners, he may properly be deemed as an agent.

The principal distinction between him and a mere agent is that he has a community of interest with other partners in the whole property and business and liabilities of partnership, whereas an agent as such has no interest in either.

The rule that a partner is the agent of the firm for the purpose of the business of the firm cannot be applied to all transactions and dealings between the partners themselves. It is applicable only to the act done by partners for the purpose of the business of the firm.

 

  1. What are the various grounds under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, on which the Court may, at the suit of the partner, dissolve a firm?

Ans. DISSOLUTION BY THE COURT (Section 44 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932):

 

Court may, at the suit of the partner, dissolve a firm on any of the following ground:

  • Insanity/unsound mind: Where a partner (not a sleeping partner) has become of unsound mind, the court may dissolve the firm on a suit of the other partners or bythe next friend of the insane Temporary sickness is no ground for dissolution of firm.
  • Permanent incapacity: When a partner, other than the partner suing, has become in any way permanently incapable of performing his duties as partner, then the court may dissolve the Such permanent incapacity may result from physical disability or illness etc.
  • Misconduct: Where a partner, other than the partner suing, is guilty of conduct which is likely to affect prejudicially the carrying on of business, the court may order for dissolution of the firm, by giving regard to the nature of business. It is not necessary that misconduct must relate to the conduct of the The important point is the adverse effect of misconduct on the business. In each case, nature of business will decide whether an act is misconduct or not.
  • Persistent breach of agreement: Where a partner other than the partner suing, wilfully or persistently commits breach of agreements relating to the management of the affairs of the firm or the conduct of its business, or otherwise so conduct himself in matters relating to the business that it is not reasonably practicable for other partners to carry on the business in partnership with him, then the court may dissolve the firm at the instance of any of the Following comes in to category of breach of contract:
    • Embezzlement,
    • Keeping erroneous accounts
    • Holding more cash than allowed
    • Refusal to show accounts despite repeated request
  • Transfer of interest: Where a partner other than the partner suing, has transferred the whole of his interest in the firm to a third party or has allowed his share to be charged or sold by the court, in the recovery of arrears of land revenue, the court may dissolve the firm at the instance of any other
  • Continuous/Perpetual losses: Where the business of the firm cannot be carried on except at a loss in future also, the court may order for its
  • Just and equitable grounds: Where the court considers any other ground to be just and equitable for the dissolution of the firm, it may dissolve a firm. The following are the cases for the just and equitable grounds-
  • Deadlock in the
  • Where the partners are not in talking terms between
  • Loss of
  • Gambling by a partner on a stock

 

  1. A, B and C are partners in a firm. As per terms of the partnership deed, A is entitled to 20 percent of the partnership property and profits. A retires from the firm and dies after 15 days. B and C continue business of the firm without settling accounts. What are the rights of A’s legal representatives against the firm under the Indian Partnership Act, 1932?

Ans. Retirement / Death of Partner: Section 37 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 provides that where a partner dies or otherwise ceases to be a partner and there is no final settlement of account between the legal representatives of the deceased partner or the firms with the property of the firm, then, in the absence of a contract to the contrary, the legal representatives of the deceased partner or the retired partner are entitled to claim either.

  • Such shares of the profits earned after the death or retirement of the partner which is attributable to the use of his share in the property of the firm; or
  • Interest at the rate of 6 per cent annum on the amount of his share in the

Based on the aforesaid provisions of Section 37 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, in the given problem, A shall be entitled, at his option to:

  • the 20% shares of profits (as per the partnership deed); or
  • interest at the rate of 6 per cent per annum on the amount of A’s share in the

property.

                                   

MTP

  1. “Though a minor cannot be a partner in a firm, he can nonetheless be admitted to the benefits of partnership.”
  • Referring to the provisions of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, state the rights which can be enjoyed by a minor partner.
  • State the liabilities of a minor partner both:
    • Before attaining majority and
    • After attaining majority

 

Ans. Rights which can be enjoyed by a minor partner:

  • A minor partner has a right to his agreed share of the profits and of the
  • He can have access to, inspect and copy the accounts of the
  • He can sue the partners for accounts or for payment of his share but only when severing his connection with the firm, and not
  • On attaining majority, he may within 6 months elect to become a partner or not to become a partner. If he elects to become a partner, then he is entitled to the share to which he was entitled as a If he does not, then his share is not liable for any acts of the firm after the date of the public notice served to that effect.

(b)                       (1)  Liabilities of a minor partner before attaining majority:

  • The liability of the minor is confined only to the extent of his share in the profits and the property of the firm.
  • Minor has no personal liability for the debts of the firm incurred during his
  • Minor cannot be declared insolvent, but if the firm is declared insolvent his share in the firm vests in the Official Receiver/Assignee.

(2) Liabilities of a minor partner after attaining majority:

Within 6 months of his attaining majority or on his obtaining knowledge that he had  been admitted to the benefits of partnership, whichever date is later, the minor partner has to decide whether he shall remain a partner or leave the firm.

Where he has elected not to become partner he may give public notice that he has elected not to become partner and such notice shall determine his position as regards the firm. If he fails to give such notice he shall become a partner in the firm on the expiry of the said six months.

 

 

  1. X, Y and Z are partners in a Partnership Firm. They were carrying their business successfully for the past several years. Spouses of X and Y fought in ladies club on their personal issue and X’s wife was hurt badly. X got angry on the incident and he convinced Z to expel Y from their partnership firm. Y was expelled from partnership without any notice from X and Z. Considering the provisions of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, state whether they can expel a partner from the firm. What are the criteria for test of good faith in such circumstances?

Ans. A partner may not be expelled from a firm by a majority of partners except in exercise, in good faith, of powers conferred by contract between the partners. It is, thus, essential that:

  • the power of expulsion must have existed in a contract between the partners;
  • the power has been exercised by a majority of the partners; and
  • it has been exercised in good

 

If all these conditions are not present, the expulsion is not deemed to be in bonafide interest of the business of the firm.

The test of good faith as required under Section 33(1) includes three things:

  • The expulsion must be in the interest of the
  • The partner to be expelled is served with a
  • He is given an opportunity of being

If a partner is otherwise expelled, the expulsion is null and void.

Thus, according to the test of good faith as required under Section 33(1), expulsion of Partner Y is not valid.

 

  1. “Indian Partnership Act does not make the registration of firms compulsory nor does it impose any penalty for non-registration.” Explain. Discuss the various disabilities or disadvantages that a non-registered partnership firm can face in brief?

Ans. Under the English Law, the registration of firms is compulsory. Therefore, there is a penalty for non-registration of firms. But the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 does not make the registration of firms compulsory nor does it impose any penalty for non-registration. The registration of a partnership is optional and one partner cannot compel another partner to join in the registration of the firm. It is not essential that the firm should be registered from the very beginning.

However, under Section 69, non-registration of partnership gives rise to a number of disabilities which are as follows:

  • No suit in a civil court by firm or other co-partners against third party: The firm or any other person on its behalf cannot bring an action against the third party for breach of contract entered into by the firm, unless the firm is registered and the persons suing are or have been shown in the register of firms as partners in the
  • No relief to partners for set-off of claim: If an action is brought against the firm by a third party, then neither the firm nor the partner can claim any set-off, if the suit be valued for more than ` 100 or pursue other proceedings to enforce the rights arising from any
  • Aggrieved partner cannot bring legal action against other partner or the firm: A partner of an unregistered firm (or any other person on his behalf) is precluded from bringing legal action against the firm or any person alleged to be or to have been a partner in the
  • Third party can sue the firm: In case of an unregistered firm, an action can be brought against the firm by a third

 

  1. Whether a minor may be admitted in the business of a partnership firm? Explain the rights of a minor in the partnership firm.

Ans. A minor cannot be bound by a contract because a minor’s contract is void and not merely voidable. Therefore, a minor cannot become a partner in a firm because partnership is founded on a contract. Though a minor cannot be a partner in a firm, he can nonetheless be admitted to the benefits of partnership under Section 30 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932. In other words, he can be validly given a share in the partnership profits. When this has been done and it can be done with the consent of all the partners then the rights and liabilities of such a partner will be governed under Section 30 as follows:

Rights:

  • A minor partner has a right to his agreed share of the profits and of the
  • He can have access to, inspect and copy the accounts of the
  • He can sue the partners for accounts or for payment of his share but only when severing his connection with the firm, and not
  • On attaining majority he may within 6 months elect to become a partner or not to become a If he elects to become a partner, then he is entitled to the share to which he was entitled as a minor. If he does not, then his share is not liable for any acts of the firm after the date of the public notice served to that effect.

 

  1. A, B, and C are partners of a partnership firm ABC & Co. The firm is a dealer in office furniture. A was in charge of purchase and sale, B was in charge of maintenance of accounts of the firm and C was in charge of handling all legal matters. Recently through an agreement among them, it was decided that A will be in charge of maintenance of accounts and B will be in charge of purchase and sale. Being ignorant about such agreement, M, a supplier supplie d some furniture to A, who ultimately sold them to a third party. Referring to the provisions of the Partnership Act, 1932, advise whether M can recover money from the firm.

What will be your advice in case M was having knowledge about the agreement?

Ans. According to Section 20 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, the partners in a firm may, by contract between the partners, extend or restrict implied authority of any partners.

Notwithstanding any such restriction, any act done by a partner on behalf of the firm which falls within his implied authority binds the firm, unless the person with whom he is dealing knows of the restriction or does not know or believe that partner to be a partner.

The implied authority of a partner may be extended or restricted by contract between the partners. Under the following conditions, the restrictions imposed on the implied authority of a partner by agreement shall be effective against a third party:

  • The third party knows above the restrictions, and
  • The third party does not know that he is dealing with a partner in a

Now, referring to the case given in the question, M supplied furniture to A, who ultimately sold them to a third party and M was also ignorant about the agreement entered into by the partners about the change in their role. M also is not aware that he is dealing with a partner in a firm. Therefore, M on the basis of knowledge of implied authority of A, can recover money from the firm.

But in the second situation, if M was having knowledge about the agreement, he cannot recover money from the firm.

 

 

 

 

CA Foundation

Blast from the Past

Coverage – Previous Years Q & A, RTP & MTP

Sales of Goods Act, 1930

 

  1. What are the rules which regulate the Sale by Auction under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930? (January, 2021 – 4 Marks)

Ans. Rules of Auction sale: Section 64 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 provides following rules to regulate the sale by auction:

  • Where goods are sold in lots: Where goods are put up for sale in lots, each lot is prima facie deemed to be subject of a separate contract of
  • Completion of the contract of sale: The sale is complete when the auctioneer announces its completion by the fall of hammer or in any other customary manner and until such announcement is made, any bidder may retract from his
  • Right to bid may be reserved: Right to bid may be reserved expressly by or on behalf of the seller and where such a right is expressly reserved, but not otherwise, the seller or any one person on his behalf may bid at the
  • Where the sale is not notified by the seller: Where the sale is not notified to be subject to a right to bid on behalf of the seller, it shall not be lawful for the se ller to bid himself or to employ any person to bid at such sale, or for the auctioneer knowingly to take any bid from the seller or any such person; and any sale contravening this rule may be treated as fraudulent by the
  • Reserved price: The reserved price is the lowest price at which a seller is willing to sell an item. The auction sale may be notified to be subject to a reserve or upset price; and
  • Pretended bidding: If the seller makes use of pretended bidding to raise the price, the sale is voidable at the option of the

 

  1. What are the differences between a ‘Condition’ and ‘Warranty’ in a contract of sale? Also explain, when shall a ‘breach of condition’ be treated as ‘breach of warranty’ under provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930? (January, 2021 – 6 Marks)

Ans. Difference between conditions and Warranties:

The following are important differences between conditions and warranties.

 

  Point of differences Condition Warranty
Meaning A condition is essential to the main purpose of the contract. It is only collateral to the main purpose of the contract.
Right in case of breach The aggrieved party can repudiate the contract or claim damages or both in the case of breach of condition. The aggrieved party can claim only damages in case of breach of warranty.
Conversion of stipulations A breach of condition may be treated as a breach of warranty. A breach of warranty cannot be treated as a breach of condition.

 

Breach of condition be treated as a breach of warranty

Section 13 of the Sales of Goods Act, 1930, specifies cases where a breach of condition be treated as a breach of warranty. As a result of which the buyer loses his right to rescind the contract and can claim for damages only.

In the following cases, a contract is not avoided even on account of a breach of a condition:

  • Where the buyer altogether waives the performance of the A party may for his own benefit, waive a stipulation.
  • Where the buyer elects to treat the breach of the conditions, as one of a That is to say, he may claim only damages instead of repudiating the contract.
  • Where the contract is non-severable and the buyer has accepted either the whole goods or any part
  • Where the fulfilment of any condition or warranty is excused by law by reason of impossibility or

 

  1. Mr. T was a retail trader of fans of various kinds. Mr. M came to his shop and asked for an exhaust fan for kitchen. Mr. T showed him different brands and Mr. M approved of a particular brand and paid for it. Fan was delivered at Mr. M’s house; at the time of opening the packet he found that it was a table fan. He informed Mr. T about the delivery of the wrong fan. Mr. T refused to exchange the same, saying that the contract was complete after the delivery of the fan and payment of price.
  • Discuss whether Mr. T is right in refusing to exchange as per provisions of Sale of Goods Act, 1930?
  • What is the remedy available to M?

 

Ans.

  • According to Section 15 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, where the goods are sold by sample as well as by description, the implied condition is that the goods supplied shall correspond to both with the sample and the description. In case, the goods do not correspond with the sample or with description or vice versa or both, the buyer can repudiate the

 

Further, as per Section 16(l) of the Sales of Goods Act, 1930, when the buyer makes known to the seller the particular purpose for which the goods are required and he relies on the judgment or skill of the seller, it is the duty of the seller to supply such goods as are reasonably fit for that purpose.

 

In the given case, Mr. M had revealed Mr. T that he wanted the exhaust fan for the kitchen. Since the table fan delivered by Mr. T was unfit for the purpose for which Mr. M wanted the fan, therefore, T cannot refuse to exchange the fan.

 

  • When one party does not fulfill his obligation according to the agreed terms, the other party may treat the contract as repudiated or can insist for performance as per the original contract. Accordingly, the remedy available to M is that he can either rescind the contract or claim refund of the price paid by him or he may require Mr. T to replace it with the fan he wanted.

 

  1. Write any four exceptions to the doctrine of Caveat Emptor as per the Sale of Goods Act, 1930. (Nov, 20 – 4 Marks)

Ans. The doctrine of Caveat Emptor given under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 is subject to the following exceptions:

  1. Fitness as to quality or use: Where the buyer makes known to the seller the particular purpose for which the goods are required, it is the duty of the seller to supply such goods as are reasonably fit for that purpose [Section 16 (1)].
  2. Goods purchased under patent or brand name: In case where the goods are purchased under its patent name or brand name, there is no implied condition that the goods shall be fit for any particular purpose [Section 16(1)].
  3. Goods sold by description: Where the goods are sold by description there is an implied condition that the goods shall correspond with the description [Section 15]. If it is not so, then seller is responsible.
  4. Goods of Merchantable Quality: Where the goods are bought by description from a seller who deals in goods of that description there is an implied condition that the goods shall be of merchantable quality. The rule of Caveat Emptor is not applicable. [Section 16(2)].
  5. Sale by sample: Where the goods are bought by sample, this rule of Caveat Emptor does not apply if the bulk does not correspond with the sample [Section 17].
  6. Goods by sample as well as description: Where the goods are bought by sample as well as description, the rule of Caveat Emptor is not applicable in case the goods do not correspond with both the sample and description or either of the condition [Section 15].
  7. Trade Usage: An implied warranty or condition as to quality or fitness for a particular purpose may be annexed by the usage of trade and if the seller deviates from that, this rule of Caveat Emptor is not applicable [Section 16(3)].
  8. Seller actively conceals a defect or is guilty of fraud: Where the seller sells the goods by making some misrepresentation or fraud and the buyer relies on it or when the seller actively conceals some defect in the goods so that the same could not be discovered by the buyer on a reasonable examination, then the rule of Caveat Emptor will not

 

  1. Explain any six circumstances in detail in which non-owner can convey better title to Bona fide purchaser of goods for value as per the Sale of Goods Act, 1930. (Nov, 20 – 6 Marks)

Ans. In the following cases, a non-owner can convey better title to the bona fide purchaser of goods for value.

  • Sale by a Mercantile Agent: A sale made by a mercantile agent of the goods for document of title to goods would pass a good title to the buyer in the following circumstances; namely;
    • If he was in possession of the goods or documents with the consent of the owner;
    • If the sale was made by him when acting in the ordinary course of business as a mercantile agent; and
    • If the buyer had acted in good faith and has at the time of the contract of sale, no notice of the fact that the seller had no authority to sell (Proviso to Section 27 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930).
  • Sale by one of the joint owners (Section 28): If one of several joint owners of goods has the sole possession of them by permission of the co-owners, the property in the goods is transferred to any person who buys them of such joint owner in good faith and has not at the time of the contract of sale notice that the seller has no authority to
  • Sale by a person in possession under voidable contract: A buyer would acquire a good title to the goods sold to him by a seller who had obtained possession of the goods under a contract voidable on the ground of coercion, fraud, misrepresentation or undue influence provided that the contract had not been rescinded until the time of the sale (Section 29).
  • Sale by one who has already sold the goods but continues in possession thereof: If a person has sold goods but continues to be in possession of them or of the documents of title to them, he may sell them to a third person, and if such person obtains the delivery thereof in good faith and without notice of the previous sale, he would have good title to them, although the property in the goods had passed to the first buyer earlier. A pledge or other disposition of the goods or documents of title by the seller in possession are equally valid [Section 30(1)].
  • Sale by buyer obtaining possession before the property in the goods has vested in him: Where a buyer with the consent of the seller obtains possession of the goods before the property in them has passed to him, he may sell, pledge or otherwise dispose of the goods to a third person, and if such person obtains delivery of the goods in good faith and without notice of the lien or other right of the original seller in respect of the goods, he would get a good title to them [Section 30(2)].

However, a person in possession of goods under a ‘hire-purchase’ agreement which gives him only an option to buy is not covered within the section unless it amounts to a sale.

  • Effect of Estoppel: Where the owner is estopped by the conduct from denying the seller’s authority to sell, the transferee will get a good title as against the true But before a good title by estoppel can be made, it must be shown that the true owner had actively suffered or held out the other person in question as the true owner or as a person authorized to sell the goods.
  • Sale by an unpaid seller: Where an unpaid seller who had exercised his right of lien or stoppage in transit resells the goods, the buyer acquires a good title to the goods as against the original buyer [Section 54 (3)].
  • Sale under the provisions of other Acts:
  • Sale by an Official Receiver or Liquidator of the Company will give the purchaser a valid
  • Purchase of goods from a finder of goods will get a valid title under circumstances [Section 169 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872]
  • A sale by pawnee can convey a good title to the buyer [Section 176 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872]

 

  1. Ms. R owns a Two Wheeler which she handed over to her friend Ms. K on sale or return basis. Even after a week, Ms. K neither returned the vehicle nor made payment for it. She instead pledged the vehicle to Mr. A to obtain a loan. Ms. R now wants to claim the Two Wheeler from Mr. A. Will she succeed?
    • Examine with reference to the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, what recourse is available to Ms. R?
    • Would your answer be different if it had been expressly provided that the vehicle would remain the property of R until the price has been paid? (Nov, 20 – 6 Marks)

Ans. As per the provisions of Section 24 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, when goods are delivered to the buyer on approval or “on sale or return” or other similar terms, the property therein passes to the buyer-

  • when the buyer signifies his approval or acceptance to the seller or does any other act adopting the transaction;
  • if he does not signify his approval or acceptance to the seller but retains the goods without giving notice of rejection, then, if a time has been fixed for the return of the goods, on the expiration of such time, and, if no time has been fixed, on the expiration of a reasonable time; or
  • he does something to the good which is equivalent to accepting the goods e.g. he pledges or sells the goods.

Referring to the above provisions, we can analyse the situation given in the question.

  • In the instant case, Ms. K, who had taken delivery of the two wheeler on Sale or Return basis pledged the two wheeler to Mr. A, has attracted the third condition that she has done something to the good which is equivalent to accepting the goods g. she pledges or sells the goods. Therefore, the property therein (Two wheeler) passes to Mr. A. Now in this situation, Ms. R cannot claim back her two wheeler from Mr. A, but she can claim the price of the two wheeler from Ms. K only.
  • It may be noted that where the goods have been delivered by a person on “sa le or

return” on the terms that the goods were to remain the property of the seller till they

are paid for, the property therein does not pass to the buyer until the terms are complied with, i.e., price is paid for.

Hence, in this case, it is held that at the time of pledge, the ownership was not transferred to Ms. K. Thus, the pledge was not valid and Ms. R could recover the two wheeler from Mr. A.

 

  1. State the various essential elements involved in the sale of unascertained goods and its appropriation as per the Sale of Goods Act, 1930. (Nov, 19 – 4 Marks)

Ans. Sale of unascertained goods and Appropriation (Section 23 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930): Appropriation of goods involves selection of goods with the intention of using them in performance of the contract and with the mutual consent of the seller and the buyer.

The essentials are:

  • There is a contract for the sale of unascertained or future
  • The goods should conform to the description and quality stated in the
  • The goods must be in a deliverable
  • The goods must be unconditionally appropriated to the contract either by delivery to the buyer or his agent or the
  • The appropriation must be made by:
    • the seller with the assent of the buyer; or
    • the buyer with the assent of the
  • The assent may be express or
  • The assent may be given either before or after

What are the rights of an unpaid seller against goods under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930?

 

  1. What are the rights of an unpaid seller against goods under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930? (Nov, 19 – 6 Marks)

Ans. Rights of an unpaid seller against the goods: As per the provisions of Section 46 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, notwithstanding that the property in the goods may have passed to the buyer, the unpaid seller of goods, as such, has by implication of law-

  • a lien on the goods for the price while he is in possession of them;
  • in case of the insolvency of the buyer, a right of stopping the goods in transit after he has parted with the possession of them;
  • a right of re-sale as limited by this [Sub-section (1)]

Where the property in goods has not passed to the buyer, the unpaid seller has, in addition to his other remedies, a right of withholding delivery similar to and co-extensive with his rights of lien and stoppage in transit where the property has passed to the buyer. [Sub-section (2)]

These rights can be exercised by the unpaid seller in the following circumstances:

  • Right of lien (Section 47): According to sub-section (1), the unpaid seller of goods who is in possession of them is entitled to retain possession of them until payment or tender of the price in the following cases, namely:-
    • where the goods have been sold without any stipulation as to credit;
    • where the goods have been sold on credit, but the term of credit has expired;
    • where the buyer becomes
  • Right of stoppage in transit (Section 50): When the buyer of goods becomes insolvent, the unpaid seller who has parted with the possession of the goods has the right of stopping them in transit, that is to say, he may resume possession of the goods as long as they are in the course of transit, and may retain them until paid or tendered price of the
  • Right to re-sell the goods (Section 54): The unpaid seller can exercise the right to re-sell the goods under the following conditions:
  1. Where the goods are of a perishable nature
  2. Where he gives notice to the buyer of his intention to re-sell the goods
  3. Where an unpaid seller who has exercised his right of lien or stoppage in transit resells the goods
  4. A re-sale by the seller where a right of re-sale is expressly reserved in a contract of sale
  5. Where the property in goods has not passed to the buyer

 

  1. Mrs. Geeta went to the local rice and wheat wholesale shop and asked for 100 kgs of Basmati rice. The Shopkeeper quoted the price of the same as ` 125 per kg to which she agreed. Mrs. Geeta insisted that she would like to see the sample of what will be provided to her by the shopkeeper before she agreed upon such purchase.

The shopkeeper showed her a bowl of rice as sample. The sample exactly corresponded to the entire lot.

The buyer examined the sample casually without noticing the fact that even though the sample was that of Basmati Rice but it contained a mix of long and short grains.

The cook on opening the bags complained that the dish if prepared with the rice would not taste the same as the quality of rice was not as per requirement of the dish.

Now Mrs. Geeta wants to file a suit of fraud against the seller alleging him of selling mix of good and cheap quality rice. Will she be successful?

Explain the basic law on sale by sample under Sale of Goods Act 1930?

Decide the fate of the case and options open to the buyer for grievance redressal as per the provisions of Sale of Goods Act 1930?

What would be your answer in case Mrs. Geeta specified her exact requirement as to length of rice? (Nov, 19 – 6 Marks)

Ans. (i) As per the provisions of Sub-Section (2) of Section 17 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, in a contract of sale by sample, there is an implied condition that:

  • the bulk shall correspond with the sample in quality;
  • the buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing the bulk with the

In the instant case, in the light of the provisions of Sub-Clause (b) of Sub-Section

(2) of Section 17 of the Act, Mrs. Geeta will not be successful as she casually examined the sample of rice (which exactly corresponded to the entire lot) without noticing the fact that even though the sample was that of Basmati Rice but it contained a mix of long and short grains.

  • Sale by Sample: (Section 17 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930): As per the provisions of Sub-Section (1) of section 17 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, a contract of sale is a contract for sale by sample where there is a term in the contract, express or implied, to that effect.

As per the provisions of Sub-Section (2) of section 17 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, in a contract of sale by sample, there is an implied condition that:

  • that the bulk shall correspond with the sample in quality;
  • that the buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing the bulk with the
  • that the goods shall be free from any defect, rendering them unmerchantable, which would not be apparent on reasonable examination of the
  • In the instant case, the buyer does not have any option available to him for grievance
  • In case Geeta specified her exact requirement as to length of rice, then there is an implied condition that the goods shall correspond with the description. If it is not so, the seller will be held liable.

 

  1. Discuss the various types of implied warranties as per the Sales of Goods Act, 1930?

(May, 19 – 4 Marks)

Ans. Various types  of implied warranties

  1. Warranty as to undisturbed possession [Section 14(b) of the Sales of Goods Act, 1930]: An implied warranty that the buyer shall have and enjoy quiet possession of the goods. That is to say, if the buyer having got possession of the goods, is later on disturbed in his possession, he is entitled to sue the seller for the breach of the warranty.
  2. Warranty as to non-existence of encumbrances [Section 14(c)]: An implied warranty that the goods shall be free from any charge or encumbrance in favour of any third party not declared or known to the buyer before or at the time the contract is entered
  3. Warranty as to quality or fitnessby usage of trade [Section 16(3)]: An implied warranty as to quality or fitness for a particular purpose may be annexed or attached by the usage of
  4. Disclosure of dangerous nature of goods: Where the goods are dangerous in nature and the buyer is ignorant of the danger, the seller must warn the buyer of the probable danger. If there is a breach of warranty, the seller may be liable in

 

  1. “A non-owner can convey better title to the bonafide purchaser of goods for value.” Discuss the cases when a person other than the owner can transfer title in goods as per the provisions of the Sales of Goods Act, 1930?

Ans. In the following cases, a non-owner can convey better title to the bona fide purchaser of goods for value:

  • Sale by a Mercantile Agent: A sale made by a mercantile agent of the goods for document of title to goods would pass a good title to the buyer in the following circumstances; namely;
    • If he was in possession of the goods or documents with the consent of the owner;
    • If the sale was made by him when acting in the ordinary course of business as a mercantile agent; and
    • If the buyer had acted in good faith and has at the time of the contract of sale, no notice of the fact that the seller had no authority to sell (Proviso to Section 27 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930).
  • Sale by one of the joint owners (Section 28): If one of several joint owners of goods has the sole possession of them by permission of the co-owners, the property in the goods is transferred to any person who buys them of such joint owner in good faith and has not at the time of the contract of sale notice that the seller has no authority to
  • Sale by a person in possession under voidable contract: A buyer would acquire a good title to the goods sold to him by a seller who had obtained possession of the goods under a contract voidable on the ground of coercion, fraud, misrepresentation or undue influence provided that the contract had not been rescinded until the time of the sale (Section 29).
  • Sale by one who has already sold the goods but continues in possession thereof: If a person has sold goods but continues to be in possession of them or of the documents of title to them, he may sell them to a third person, and if such person obtains the delivery thereof in good faith and without notice of the previous sale, he would have good title to them, although the property in the goods had passed to the first buyer [Section 30(1)]
  • Sale by buyer obtaining possession before the property in the goods has vested in him: Where a buyer with the consent of the seller obtains possession of the goods before the property in them has passed to him, he may sell, pledge or otherwise dispose of the goods to a third person, and if such person obtains delivery of the goods in good faith and without notice of the lien or other right of the original seller in respect of the goods, he would get a good title to them [Section 30(2)].
  • Effect of Estoppel: Where the owner is estopped by the conduct from denying the seller’s authority to sell, the transferee will get a good title as against the true But before a good title by estoppel can be made, it must be shown that the true owner had actively suffered or held out the other person in question as the true owner or as a person authorized to sell the goods.
  • Sale by an unpaid seller: Where an unpaid seller who had exercised his right of lien or stoppage in transit resells the goods, the buyer acquires a good title to the goods as against the original buyer [Section 54 (3)].

(8)       Sale under the provisions of other Acts:

  • Sale by an Official Receiver or Liquidator of the Company will give the purchaser a valid
  • Purchase of goods from a finder of goods will get a valid title under circumstances [Section 169 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872]
  • A sale by pawnee can convey a good title to the buyer [Section 176 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872]

 

  1. M/s Woodworth & Associates, a firm dealing with the wholesale and retail buying and selling of various kinds of wooden logs, customized as per the requirement of the customers. They dealt with Rose wood, Mango wood, Teak wood, Burma wood etc.

Mr. Das, a customer came to the shop and asked for wooden logs measuring 4 inches broad  and  8  feet  long  as  required  by  the  carpenter. Mr. Das specifically mentioned that he required the wood which would be best suited for the purpose of making wooden doors and window frames. The Shop owner agreed and arranged the wooden pieces cut into as per the buyers requirements.

The carpenter visited Mr. Das’s house next day, and he found that the seller has supplied   Mango  Tree  wood   which   would   most  unsuitable  for   the  purpose.  The: carpenter asked Mr. Das to return the wooden logs as it would not meet his requirements.

The Shop owner refused to return the wooden logs on the plea that logs were cut to specific requirements of Mr. Das and hence could not be resold.

 (i) Explain the duty of the buyer as well as the seller according to the doctrine of “Caveat Emptor”.

(ii) Whether Mr. Das would be able to get the money back or the right kind of wood as required serving his purpose? (May, 19 – 6 Marks)

Ans. (i) Duty of the buyer according to the doctrine of “Caveat Emptor”: In case of sale of goods, the doctrine ‘Caveat Emptor’ means ‘let thebuyer beware’. When sellers display their goods in the open market, it is for the buyers to make a proper selection or choice of the goods. If the goods turn out to be defective he cannothold the seller liable. The seller is in no way responsible for the bad selection of the buyer. The seller is not bound to disclose the defects in the goods which he is selling.

Duty of the seller according to the doctrine of “Caveat Emptor”: The following exceptions to the Caveat Emptor are the duties of the seller:

  1. Fitness as to quality or use
  2. Goods purchased under patent or brand name
  3. Goods sold by description
  4. Goods of Merchantable Quality
  5. Sale by sample
  6. Goods by sample as well as description
  7. Trade usage
  8. Seller actively conceals a defect or is guilty of fraud

(ii)  As Mr. Das has specifically mentioned that he required the wood which would be best suited for the purpose of making wooden doors and window frames but the seller supplied Mango tree wood which is most unsuitable for the purpose. Mr. Das is entitled to get the money back or the right kind of wood as required serving his purpose. It is the duty of the seller to supply such goods as are reasonably fit for the purpose mentioned by buyer. [Section 16(1) of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930]

 

 

 

 

 

 

RTP, NOV – 2021

 

  1. Archika went to a jewellery shop and asked the shopkeeper to show the gold bangles with white polish. The shopkeeper informed that he has gold bangles with lots of designs but not in white polish rather if Archika select gold bangles in his shop, he will arrange white polish on those gold bangles without any extra cost. Archika select a set of designer bangles and pay for that. The shopkeeper requested Archika to come after two days for delivery of those bangles so that white polish can be done on those bangles. When Archika comes after two days to take delivery of bangles, she noticed that due to white polishing , the design of bangles has been disturbed. Now, she wants to avoid the contract and asked the shopkeeper to give her money back but shopkeeper has denied for the same.
  • State with reasons whether Archika can recover the amount under the Sale of Goods Act,
  • What would be your answer if shopkeeper says that he can repair those bangles but he will charge extra cost for same?

Ans. As per Section 4(3) of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, where under a contract of sale , the property in the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer, the contract is called a sale, but where the transfer of the property in the goods is to take place at a future time or subject to some condition thereafter to be fulfilled, the contract is called an agreement to sell and as per Section 4(4), an agreement to sell becomes a sale when the time elapses or the conditions are fulfilled subject to which the property in the goods is to be transferred.

  • On the basis of above provisions and facts given in the question, it can be said that there is an agreement to sell between Archika and shopkeeper and not a sale. Even the payment was made by Archika, the property in goods can be transferred only after the fulfilment of conditions fixed between buyer and seller. As the white polish was done but original design is disturbed due to polishing, bangles are not in original Hence, Archika has right to avoid the agreement to sell and can recover the price paid.
  • On the other hand, if shopkeeper offers to bring the bangles in original position by repairing, he cannot charge extra cost from Archika. Even he has to bear some expenses for repair; he cannot charge it from

 

  1. Prashant reaches a sweet shop and ask for 1 Kg of ‘Burfi’ if the sweets are fresh. Seller replies’ “Sir, my all sweets are fresh and of good quality.” Prashant agrees to buy on the condition that first he tastes one piece of ‘Burfi’ to check the quality. Seller gives him one piece to taste. Prashant, on finding the quality is good, ask the seller to pack. On reaching the house, Prashant finds that ‘Burfi’ is stale not fresh while the piece tasted was fresh. Now, Prashant wants to avoid the contract and return the ‘Burfi’ to seller.
  • State with reason whether Prashant can avoid the contract under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930?
  • Will your answer be different if Prashant does not taste the sweet?

Ans. By virtue of provisions of Section 17 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, in the case of a contract for sale by sample there is an implied condition that the bulk shall correspond with the sample in quality and the buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing the bulk with the sample. According to Section 15, where there is a contract for the sale of goods by description, there is an implied condition that the goods shall correspond with the description. If the goods do not correspond with implied condition, the buyer can avoid the contract and reject the goods purchased.

  • In the instant case, the sale of sweet is sale by sample and the quality of bulk does not correspond with quality of sample. Hence, Prashant can return the sweet and avoid the

 

  • In the other case, the sale of sweet is the case of sale by description and the quality of goods does not correspond with description made by seller. Hence, answer will be Prashant can return the sweet and avoid the contract.

 

  1. Akansh purchased a Television set from Jethalal, the owner of Gada Electronics on the condition that first three days he will check its quality and if satisfied he will pay for that otherwise he will return the Television set. On the second day, the Television set was spoiled due to an earthquake. Jethalal demands the price of Television set from Akansh. Whether Akansh is liable to pay the price under the Sale of Goods Act,1930? If not, who will ultimately bear the loss?

Ans. According to Section 24 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, “When the goods are delivered to the buyer on approval or on sale or return or other similar terms the property passes to the buyer:

  • when he signifies his approval or acceptance to the seller,
  • when he does any other act adopting the transaction, and
  • if he does not signify his approval or acceptance to the seller but retains goods beyond a reasonable time”.

Further, as per Section 8, where there is an agreement to sell specific goods, and subsequently the goods without any fault on the part of the seller or buyer perish or become so damaged as no longer to answer to their description in the agreement before the risk passes to the buyer, the agreement is thereby avoided.

According to above provisions and fact, the property is not passes to Akansh i.e. buyer as no condition of Section 24 is satisfied. Hence, risk has not passed to buyer and the agreement is thereby avoided. Akansh is not liable to pay the price. The loss finally should be borne by Seller, Mr. Jethalal.

 

  1. Rachit arranges an auction to sale an antic wall clock. Megha, being one of the bidders, gives highest bid. For announcing the completion of sale, the auctioneer fall the hammer on table but suddenly hammer brakes and damages the watch. Megha wants to avoid the contract. Can she do so under the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930?

Ans.  By virtue of provisions of Section 64 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, in case of auction sale, the sale is complete when the auctioneer announces its completion by the fall of the hammer or in some other customary manner.

In the instant case, Megha gives the highest bid in the auction for the sale of antic wall clock arranged by Rachit. While announcing the completion of sale by fall of hammer on the table, hammer brakes and damages the clock.

On the basis of above provisions, it can be concluded that the sale by auction cannot be completed until hammer comes in its normal position after falling on table. Hence, in the given problem, sale is not completed. Megha will not be liable for loss and can avoid the contract.

 

  1. X contracted to sell his car to Y. They did not discuss the price of the car at all. X later refused to sell his car to Y on the ground that the agreement was void being uncertain about price. Can Y demand the car under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930?

Ans. Payment of the price by the buyer is an important ingredient of a contract of sale. If the parties totally ignore the question of price while making the contract, it would not become an uncertain and invalid agreement. It will rather be a valid contract and the buyer shall pay a reasonable price. (Section 9 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930)

In the give case, X and Y have entered into a contract for sale of car but they did not fix the price of the car. X refused to sell the car to Y on this ground. Y can legally demand the car from X and X can recover a reasonable price of the car from Y.

 

  1. “Nemo Dat Quod Non Habet” – “None can give or transfer goods what he does not himself own.” Explain the rule and state the cases in which the rule does not apply under the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930.

Ans. Exceptions to the Rule Nemo dat Quod Non Habet: The term means, “none can give or transfer goods what he does not himself own”. Exceptions to the rule and the cases in which the Rule does not apply under the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 are enumerated below:

  • Sale by a Mercantile Agent: A sale made by a mercantile agent of the goods or document of title to goods would pass a good title to the buyer in the following circumstances, namely;
    • if he was in possession of the goods or documents with the consent of the owner;
    • if the sale was made by him when acting in the ordinary course of business as a mercantile agent; and
    • if the buyer had acted in good faith and has at the time of the contract of sale, no notice of the fact that the seller had no authority to sell. (Proviso to Section 27).

Mercantile agent means an agent having in the customary course of business as such agent’s authority either to sell goods, or to consign goods for the purposes of sale, or to buy goods, or to raise money on the security of goods. [section 2(9)]

  • Sale by one of the joint owners: If one of the several joint owners of goods has the sole possession of them with the permission of the others, the property in the goods may be transferred to any person who buys them from such a joint owner in good faith and does not at the time of the contract of sale have notice that the seller has no authority to (Section 28)
  • Sale by a person in possession under voidable contract: A buyer would acquire a good title to the goods sold to him by seller who had obtained possession of the goods under a contract voidable on the ground of coercion, fraud, misrepresentation or undue influence provided that the contract had not been rescinded until the time of the sale (Section 29).
  • Sale by one who has already sold the goods but continues in possession thereof: If a person has sold goods but continues to be in possession of them or of the documents of title to them, he may sell them to a third person, and if such person obtains the delivery thereof in good faith without notice of the previous sale, he would have good title to them, although the property in the goods had passed to the first buyer earlier. A pledge or other deposition of the goods or documents of title by the seller in possession are equally [Section 30(1)]
  • Sale by buyer obtaining possession before the property in the goods has vested in him: Where a buyer with the consent of seller obtains possession of the goods before the property in them has passed to him, he may sell, pledge or otherwise dispose of the goods to a third person, and if such person obtains delivery of the goods in good faith and without notice of the lien or other right of the original seller in respect of the goods in good faith and without notice of the lien or other right of the original seller in respect of the goods, he would get a good title to them. [Section 30(2)].
  • Sale by an unpaid seller: Where an unpaid seller who had exercised his right of lien or stoppage in transit resells the goods, the buyer acquires a good title to the goods as against the original buyer [Section 54(3)].

(vii)    Sale under the provisions of other Acts:

  • Sale by an official Receiver or liquidator of the company will give the purchaser a valid
  • Purchase of goods from a finder of goods will get a valid title under
  • Sale by a pawnee under default of pawnor will give valid title to the

 

RTP MAY, 2021

  1. Mrs. G bought a tweed coat from P. When she used the coat, she got rashes on her skin as her skin was abnormally sensitive. But she did not make this fact known to the seller i.e. P. Mrs. G filled a case against the seller to recover damages. Can she recover damages under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930?

Ans. According to Section 16(1) of Sales of Goods Act, 1930, normally in a contract of sale there is no implied condition or warranty as to quality or fitness for any particular purpose of goods supplied. The general rule is that of “Caveat Emptor” that is “let the buyer beware”. But where the buyer expressly or impliedly makes known to the seller the particular

purpose for which the goods are required and also relies on the seller’s skill and judgement and that this is the business of the seller to sell such goods in the ordinary course of his business, the buyer can make the seller responsible.

In the given case, Mrs. G purchased the tweed coat without informing the seller i.e. P about the sensitive nature of her skin. Therefore, she cannot make the seller responsible on the ground that the tweed coat was not suitable for her skin. Mrs. G cannot treat it as a breach of implied condition as to fitness and quality and has no right to recover damages from the seller.

 

  1. What are the differences between a ‘Condition’ and ‘Warranty’ in a contract of sale? Also explain, when shall a ‘breach of condition’ be treated as ‘breach of warranty’ under the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930?

Ans. Difference between conditions and warranties:

The following are important differences between conditions and warranties.

 

Point of differences Condition Warranty
Meaning A condition is essential to the main purpose of the contract. It is only collateral to the main purpose of the contract.
Right in case       of  breach The aggrieved party can repudiate the contract or claim damages or both in the case of breach of condition. The aggrieved party can claim only damages in case of breach of warranty.
Conversion of stipulations A breach of condition may be treated as a breach of warranty. A breach of warranty cannot be treated as a breach of condition.

 

Breach of condition be treated as a breach of warranty

Section 13 of the Sales of Goods Act, 1930, specifies cases where a breach of condition be treated as a breach of warranty. As a result of which the buyer loses his right to rescind the contract and can claim for damages only.

In the following cases, a contract is not avoided even on account of a breach of a condition:

  • Where the buyer altogether waives the performance of the A party may for his own benefit, waive a stipulation.
  • Where the buyer elects to treat the breach of the conditions, as one of a That is to say, he may claim only damages instead of repudiating the contract.
  • Where the contract is non-severable and the buyer has accepted either the whole goods or any part
  • Where the fulfilment of any condition or warranty is excused by law by reason of impossibility or otherwise.

 

  1. Ms. R owns a two Wheeler which she handed over to her friend Ms. K on sale or return basis. Even after a week, Ms. K neither returned the vehicle nor made payment for it. She instead pledged the vehicle to Mr. A to obtain a loan. Ms. R now wants to claim the two Wheeler from Mr. A. Will she succeed?
    • Examine with reference to the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, what recourse is available to Ms. R?
    • Would your answer be different if it had been expressly provided that the vehicle would remain the property of R until the price has been paid?

 

Ans. As per the provisions of Section 24 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, when goods are delivered to the buyer on approval or “on sale or return” or other similar terms, the property therein passes to the buyer-

  • when the buyer signifies his approval or acceptance to the seller or does any other act adopting the transaction;
  • if he does not signify his approval or acceptance to the seller but retains the goods without giving notice of rejection, then, if a time has been fixed for the return of the goods, on the expiration of such time, and, if no time has been fixed, on the expiration of a reasonable time; or
  • he does something to the good which is equivalent to accepting the goods e.g. he pledges or sells the

 

Referring to the above provisions, we can analyse the situation given in the question:

  • In the instant case, Ms. K, who had taken delivery of the two wheeler on Sale or Return basis pledged the two wheeler to Mr. A, has attracted the third condition that she has done something to the good which is equivalent to accepting the goods g. she pledges or sells the goods. Therefore, the property therein (two wheeler) passes to Mr. A. Now in this situation, Ms. R cannot claim back her two wheeler from Mr. A, but she can claim the price of the two wheeler from Ms. K only.
  • It may be noted that where the goods have been delivered by a person on “sale or return” on the terms that the goods were to remain the property of the seller till they are paid for, the property therein does not pass to the buyer until the terms are complied with, i.e., price is paid for.

Hence, in this case, it is held that at the time of pledge, the ownership was not transferred to Ms. K. Thus, the pledge was not valid and Ms. R could recover the two wheeler from Mr. A.

 

  1. Mr. T was a retailer trader of fans of various kinds. Mr. M came to his shop and asked for an exhaust fan for kitchen. Mr. T showed him different brands and Mr. M approved of a particular brand and paid for it. Fan was delivered at Mr. M’s house; at the time of opening the packet he found that it was a table fan. He informed Mr. T about the delivery of the wrong fan. Mr. T refused to exchange the same, saying that the contract was complete after the delivery of the fan and payment of price.
    • Discuss whether T is right in refusing to exchange as per provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930?
    • What is the remedy available to M?

 

Ans. According to Section 15 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, where the goods are sold by sample as well as by description, the implied condition is that the goods supplied shall correspond to both with the sample and the description. In case, the goods do not correspond with the sample or with description or vice versa or both, the buyer can repudiate the contract.

Further, as per Section 16(1) of the Sales of Goods Act, 1930, when the buyer makes known to the seller the particular purpose for which the goods are required and he relies

on the judgment or skill of the seller, it is the duty of the seller to supply such goods as are reasonably fit for that purpose.

  • In the given case, Mr. M had revealed Mr. T that he wanted the exhaust fan for the Since the table fan delivered by Mr. T was unfit for the purpose for which Mr. M wanted the fan, therefore, T cannot refuse to exchange the fan.
  • When one party does not fulfill his obligation according to the agreed terms, the other party may treat the contract as repudiated or can insist for performance as per the original contract. Accordingly, the remedy available to Mr. M is that he can either rescind the contract or claim refund of the price paid by him or he may require Mr. T to replace it with the fan he wanted.

 

  1. State briefly the essential element of a contract of sale under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930.

Ans. Essentials of Contract of Sale

The following elements must co-exist so as to constitute a contract of sale of goods under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930.

  • There must be at least two
  • The subject matter of the contract must necessarily be
  • A price in money (not in kind) should be paid or
  • A transfer of property in goods from seller to the buyer must take
  • A contract of sale must be absolute or conditional [section 4(2)].

All other essential elements of a valid contract must be present in the contract of sale.

 

 

November, 2020 – MTP

 

  1. J the owner of a Fiat car wants to sell his car. For this purpose he hand over the car to P, a mercantile agent for sale at a price not less than ` 50, 000. The agent sells the car for ` 40, 000 to A, who buys the car in good faith and without notice of any fraud. P misappropriated the money also. J sues A to recover the Car. Decide given reasons whether J would succeed.

Ans. The problem in this case is based on the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 contained in the proviso to Section 27. The proviso provides that a mercantile agent is one who in the customary course of his business, has, as such agent, authority eith er to sell goods, or to consign goods, for the purpose of sale, or to buy goods, or to raise money on the security of goods [Section 2(9)]. The buyer of goods from a mercantile agent, who has no authority from the principal to sell, gets a good title to t he goods if the following conditions are satisfied:

  • The agent should be in possession of the goods or documents of title to the goods with the consent of the
  • The agent should sell the goods while acting in the ordinary course of business of a mercantile
  • The buyer should act in good
  • The buyer should not have at the time of the contract of sale notice that the agent has no authority to

In the instant case, P, the agent, was in the possession of the car with J’s consent for the purpose of sale. A, the buyer, therefore obtained a good title to the car. Hence, J in this case, cannot recover the car from A.

  1. Suraj sold his car to Sohan for ` 75,000. After inspection and satisfaction, Sohan paid `25,000 and took possession of the car and promised to pay the remaining amount within a month. Later on, Sohan refuses to give the remaining amount on the ground that the car was not in a good condition. Advise Suraj as to what remedy is available to him against Sohan.

Ans. As per the section 55 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 an unpaid seller has a right to institute a suit for price against the buyer personally. The said Section lays down that

  • Where under a contract of sale the property in the goods has passed to buyer and the buyer wrongfully neglects or refuses to pay for the goods, the seller may sue him for the price of the goods [Section 55(1)].
  • Where under a contract of sale the price is payable on a certain day irrespective of delivery and the buyer wrongfully neglects or refuses to pay such price, the seller may sue him for the price. It makes no difference even if the property in the goods has not passed and the goods have not been appropriated to the contract [Section 55(2)].

This problem is based on above provisions. Hence, Suraj will succeed against Sohan for recovery of the remaining amount. Apart from this, Suraj is also entitled to: –

  • Interest on the remaining amount
  • Interest during the pendency of the
  • Costs of the

 

  1. What are the consequences of “destruction of goods” under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, where the goods have been destroyed after the agreement to sell but before the sale is affected.

Ans. Destruction of Goods-Consequences:

  • In accordance with the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 as contained in Section 7, a contract for the sale of specific goods is void if at the time when the contract was made; the goods without the knowledge of the seller, perished or become so damaged as no longer to answer to their description in the contract, then the contract is void ab initio. This section is based on the rule that where both the parties to a contract are under a mistake as to a matter of fact essential to a contract, the contract is
  • In a similar way Section 8 provides that an agreement to sell specific goods becomes void if subsequently the goods, without any fault on the part of the seller or buyer, perish or become so damaged as no longer to answer to their description in agreement before the risk passes to the buyer.

It may, however, be noted that section 7 & 8 apply only to specific goods and not to unascertained goods. If the agreement is to sell a certain quantity of unascertained goods, the perishing of even the whole quantity of such goods in the possession of the seller will not relieve him of his obligation to deliver the goods.

 

  1. Distinguish between a ‘Condition’ and a ‘Warranty’ in a contract of sale. When shall a ‘breach of condition’ be treated as ‘breach of warranty’ under the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930? Explain.

Ans. Difference between Condition and Warranty

  • A condition is a stipulation essential to the main purpose of the contract whereas a warranty is a stipulation collateral to the main purpose of the
  • Breach of condition gives rise to a right to treat the contract as repudiated whereas in case of breach of warranty, the aggrieved party can claim damage
  • Breach of condition may be treated as breach of warranty whereas a breach of warranty cannot be treated as breach of condition.

According to Section 13 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 a breach of condition may be treated as breach of warranty in following circumstances:

  • Where a contract of sale is subject to any condition to be fulfilled by the seller, the buyer may waive the
  • Where the buyer elects to treat the breach of condition as breach of a
  • Where the contract of sale is non-severable and the buyer has accepted the whole goods or any part
  • Where the fulfillment of any condition or warranty is excused by law by reason of impossibility or

 

May, 2020 – RTP

 

  1. State briefly the essential element of a contract of sale under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930.

Ans. Essentials of Contract of Sale

The following elements must co-exist so as to constitute a contract of sale of goods under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930.

  • There must be at least two parties
  • The subject matter of the contract must necessarily be goods
  • A price in money (not in kind) should be paid or
  • A transfer of property in goods from seller to the buyer must take
  • A contract of sale must be absolute or conditional [section 4(2)].
  • All other essential elements of a valid contract must be present in the contract of

 

  1. What is an Implied Warranty and state the various types of Implied Warranties.

Ans. Implied Warranties: It is a warranty which the law implies into the contract of sale. In other words, it is the stipulation which has not been included in the contract of sale in express words. But the law presumes that the parties have incorporated it into their contract. It will be interesting to know that implied warranties are read into every contract of sale unless they are expressly excluded by the express agreement of the parties.

These may also be excluded by the course of dealings between the parties or by usage of trade (Section 62).

The examination of Sections 14 and 16 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 discloses the following implied warranties:

  1. Warranty as to undisturbed possession [Section 14(b)]: An implied warranty that the buyer shall have and enjoy quiet possession of the goods. That is to say, if the buyer having got possession of the goods, is later on disturbed in his possession, he is entitled to sue the seller for the breach of the
  2. Warranty as to non-existence of encumbrances [Section 14(c)]: An implied warranty that the goods shall be free from any charge or encumbrance in favour of any third party not declared or known to the buyer before or at the time the contract is entered
  3. Warranty as to quality or fitness by usage of trade [Section 16(3)]: An implied warranty as to quality or fitness for a particular purpose may be annexed or attached by the usage of

Regarding implied condition or warranty as to the quality or fitness for any particular purpose of goods supplied, the rule is ‘let the buyer beware’ i.e., the seller is under no duty to reveal unflattering truths about the goods sold, but this rule has certain exceptions.

  1. Disclosure of dangerous nature of goods: Where the goods are dangerous in nature and the buyer is ignorant of the danger, the seller must warn the buyer of the probable danger. If there is a breach of warranty, the seller may be liable in

 

  1. “Nemo Dat Quod Non Habet” “None can give or transfer goods what he does not himself own.” Explain the rule and state the cases in which the rule does not apply under the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930.

Ans. Exceptions to the Rule “Nemo dat Quod Non Habet”: The term means, “none can give or transfer goods what he does not himself own”. Exceptions to the rule and the cases in which the Rule does not apply under the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 are enumerated below:

  • Effect of Estoppel (Section 27): Where the owner is stopped by the conduct from denying the seller’s authority to sell, the transferee will get a good title as against the true owner. But before a good title by estoppel can be made, it must be shown that the true owner had actively suffered or held out the other person in question as the true owner or as a person authorized to sell the
  • Sale by a Mercantile Agent: A sale made by a mercantile agent of the goods or document of title to goods would pass a good title to the buyer in the following circumstances, namely;
    • if he was in possession of the goods or documents with the consent of the owner;
    • if the sale was made by him when acting in the ordinary course of business as a mercantile agent; and
    • if the buyer had acted in good faith and has at the time of the contract of sale, no notice of the fact that the seller had no authority to sell. (Proviso to Section 27).
  • Sale by one of the joint owners: If one of the several joint owners of goods has the sole possession of them with the permission of the others, the property in the goods may be transferred to any person who buys them from such a joint owner in good faith and does not at the time of the contract of sale have notice that the seller has no authority to (Section 28)
  • Sale by a person in possession under voidable contract: A buyer would acquire a good title to the goods sold to him by seller who had obtained possession of the goods under a contract voidable on the ground of coercion, fraud, misrepresentation or undue influence provided that the contract had not been rescinded until the time of the sale (Section 29).
  • Sale by one who has already sold the goods but continues in possession thereof: If a person has sold goods but continues to be in possession of them or of the documents of title to them, he may sell them to a third person, and if such person obtains the delivery thereof in good faith without notice of the previous sale, he would have good title to them, although the property in the goods had passed to the first buyer A pledge or other deposition of the goods or documents of title by the seller in possession are equally valid. [Section 30(1)]
  • Sale by buyer obtaining possession before the property in the goods has vested in him: Where a buyer with the consent of seller obtains possession of the goods before the property in them has passed to him, he may sell, pledge or otherwise dispose of the goods to a third person, and if such person obtains delivery of the goods in good faith and without notice of the lien or other right of the original seller in respect of the goods in good faith and without notice of the lien or other right of the original seller in respect of the goods, he would get a good title to [Section 30(2)]
  • Sale by an unpaid seller: Where an unpaid seller who had exercised his right of lien or stoppage in transit resells the goods, the buyer acquires a good title to the goods as against the original buyer [Section 54(3)]
  • Sale under the provisions of other Acts:
  • Sale by an official Receiver or liquidator of the company will give the purchaser a valid
  • Purchase of goods from a finder of goods will get a valid title under
  • Sale by a pawnee under default of pawnor will give valid title to the

 

  1. What are the rights of buyer against the seller, if the seller commits a breach of contract under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930?

Ans. If the seller commits a breach of contract, the buyer gets the following rights against the seller:

  1. Damages for non-delivery [Section 57]: Where the seller wrongfully neglects or refuses to deliver the goods to the buyer, the buyer may sue the seller for damages for non-delivery.
  2. Suit for specific performance (Section 58): Where the seller commits of breach of the contract of sale, the buyer can appeal to the court for specific performance. The court can order for specific performance only when the goods are ascertained or
  3. Suit for breach of warranty (section 59): Where there is breach of warranty on the part of the seller, or where the buyer elects to treat breach of condition as breach of warranty, the buyer is not entitled to reject the goods only on the basis of such breach of But he may –
    • set up against the seller the breach of warranty in diminution or extinction of the price; or
    • sue the seller for damages for breach of
  4. Repudiation of contract before due date (Section 60): Where either party to a contract of sale repudiates the contract before the date of delivery, the other may either treat the contract as subsisting and wait till the date of delivery, or he may treat the contract as rescinded and sue for damages for the
  5. Suit for interest: Nothing in this Act shall affect the right of the seller or the buyer to recover interest or special damages, in any case where by law interest or special damages may be recoverable, or to recover the money paid where the consideration for the payment of it has

In the absence of a contract to the contrary, the court may award interest at such rate as it thinks fit on the amount of the price to the buyer in a suit by him for the refund of the price in a case of a breach of the contract on the part of the seller from the date on which the payment was made.

 

  1. Mr. S agreed to purchase 100 bales of cotton from V, out of his large stock and sent his men to take delivery of the goods. They could pack only 60 bales. Later on, there was an accidental fire and the entire stock was destroyed including 60 bales that were already packed. Referring to the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 explain as to who will bear the loss and to what extent?

Ans. Section 26 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 provides that unless otherwise agreed, the goods remain at the seller’s risk until the property therein is transferred to the buyer, but when the property therein is transferred to the buyer, the goods are at buyer’s risk whether delivery has been made or not. Further Section 18 read with Section 23 of the Act provide that in a contract for the sale of unascertained goods, no property in the goods is transferred to the buyer, unless and until the goods are ascertained and where there is contract for the sale of unascertained or future goods by description, and goods of that description and in a deliverable state are unconditionally appropriated to the contract, either by the seller with the assent of the buyer or by the buyer with the assent of the seller, the property in the goods thereupon passes to the buyer. Such assent may be express or implied.

Applying the aforesaid law to the facts of the case in hand, it is clear that Mr. S has the right to select the good out of the bulk and he has sent his men for same purpose.

Hence the problem can be answered based on the following two assumptions and the answer will vary accordingly.

(i)         Where the bales have been selected with the consent of the buyer’s

representatives:

In this case the 60 bales has been transferred to the buyer and goods have been appropriated to the contract. Thus, loss arising due to fire in case of 60 bales would be borne by Mr. S. As regards 40 bales, the loss would be borne by Mr. V, since the goods have not been identified and appropriated.

(ii)        Where the bales have not been selected with the consent of buyer’s

representatives:

In this case, the goods has not been transferred at all and hence the loss of 100 bales would be borne by Mr. V completely.

 

  1. Mr. Amit was shopping in a self-service Super market. He picked up a bottle of cold drink from a shelf. While he was examining the bottle, it exploded in his hand and injured him. He files a suit for damages against the owner of the market on the ground of breach of condition. Decide under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, whether Mr. Amit would succeed in his claim?

Ans. Essentials of Sale: The problem as given in the question is based on Section 16(2) of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, which states that where goods are bought by description from a seller who deals in goods of that description (whether he is the manufacturer or producer or not), there is an implied condition that the goods shall be of merchantable quality. Though the term ‘merchantable quality’ is not defined in the Act, it means that in the present case, the bottle must be properly sealed. In other words, if the goods are purchased for self-use, they should be reasonably fit for the purpose for which it is being used.

In the instant case, on an examination of the bottle of cold drink, it exploded and injured the buyer. Applying the provision of Section 16(2), Mr. Amit would succeed in claim for damages from the owner of the shop.

 

MTP

 

  1. Distinguish between a ‘Condition’ and a ‘Warranty’ in a contract of sale. When shall a ‘breach of condition’ be treated as ‘breach of warranty’ under the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930? Explain.

Ans.   Difference between Condition and Warranty

  • A condition is a stipulation essential to the main purpose of the contract whereas a warranty is a stipulation collateral to the main purpose of the
  • Breach of condition gives rise to a right to treat the contract as repudiated whereas in case of breach of warranty, the aggrieved party can claim damage
  • Breach of condition may be treated as breach of warranty whereas a breach of warranty cannot be treated as breach of condition.

According to Section 13 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 a breach of condition may be treated as breach of warranty in following circumstances:

  • Where a contract of sale is subject to any condition to be fulfilled by the seller, the buyer may waive the condition,
  • Where the buyer elects to treat the breach of condition as breach of a
  • Where the contract of sale is non-severable and the buyer has accepted the whole goods or any part
  • Where the fulfillment of any condition or warranty is excused by law by reason of impossibility or

 

  1. What are the implied conditions in a contract of ‘Sale by sample’ under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930? State also the implied warranties operatives under the said Act.

Ans. The following are implied conditions in a contract of sale by sample in accordance with Section 17 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930;

  • that the bulk shall correspond with the sample in quality;
  • that the buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing the bulk with the
  • that the goods shall be free from any defect, rendering them unmerchantable, which would not be apparent on a reasonable examination of the

Implied Warrants:

  1. Warranty as to undisturbed possession [Section 14(b)]: An implied warranty that the buyer shall have and enjoy quiet possession of the goods. That is to say, if the buyer having got possession of the goods, is later on disturbed in his possession, he is entitled to sue the seller for the breach of the
  2. Warranty as to non-existence of encumbrances [Section 14(c)]: An implied warranty that the goods shall be free from any charge or encumbrance in favour of any third party not declared or known to the buyer before or at the time the contract is entered
  3. Warranty as to quality or fitness by usage of trade [Section 16(3)]. An implied warranty as to quality or fitness for a particular purpose may be annexed by the usage of
  4. Warranty to disclose dangerous nature of goods: Where a person sells goods, knowing that the goods are inherently dangerous or they are likely to be dangerous to the buyer and that the buyer is ignorant of the danger, he must warn the buyer of the probable danger, otherwise he will be liable in

 

  1. M/s Woodworth & Associates, a firm dealing with the wholesale and retail buying and selling of various kinds of wooden logs, customized as per the requirement of the customers. They dealt with Rose wood, Mango wood, Teak wood, Burma wood etc.

Mr. Das, a customer came to the shop and asked for wooden logs measuring 4 inches broad and 8 feet long as required by the carpenter. Mr. Das specifically mentioned that he required the wood which would be best suited for the purpose of making wooden doors and window frames. The Shop owner agreed and arranged the wooden pieces cut into as per the buyers requirements.

The carpenter visited Mr. Das’s house next day, and he found that the seller has supplied Mango Tree wood which would most unsuitable for the purpose. The: carpenter asked Mr. Das to return the wooden logs as it would not meet his requirements.

The Shop owner refused to return the wooden logs on the plea that logs were cut to specific requirements of Mr. Das and hence could not be resold.

  • Explain the duty of the buyer as well as the seller according to the doctrine of “Caveat Emptor’.
  • Whether Mr. Das would be able to get the money back or the right kind of wood as required serving his purpose?

 

Ans. (a) Duty of the buyer according to the doctrine of “Caveat Emptor”: In case of sale of goods, the doctrine ‘Caveat Emptor’ means ‘let the buyer beware’. When sellers display their goods in the open market, it is for the buyers to make a proper selection or choice of the goods. If the goods turn out to be defective he cannot hold the seller liable. The seller is in no way responsible for the bad selection of the buyer. The seller is not bound to disclose the defects in the goods which he is selling.

Duty of the seller according to the doctrine of “Caveat Emptor”: The following exceptions to the Caveat Emptor are the duties of the seller:

  1. Fitness as to quality or use
  2. Goods purchased under patent or brand name
  3. Goods sold by description
  4. Goods of Merchantable Quality
  5. Sale by sample
  6. Goods by sample as well as description
  7. Trade usage
  8. Seller actively conceals a defect or is guilty of fraud

(b) As Mr. Das has specifically mentioned that he required the wood which would be best suited for the purpose of making wooden doors and window frames but the seller supplied Mango tree wood which is most unsuitable for the purpose. Mr. Das is entitled to get the money back or the right kind of wood as required serving his purpose. It is the duty of the seller to supply such goods as are reasonably fit for the purpose mentioned by buyer. [Section 16(1) of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930]

 

  1. Explain the term “Delivery and its forms” under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930.

Ans. Delivery – its forms and derivatives: Delivery means voluntary transfer of possession from one person to another [Section 2(2) of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930]. As a general rule, delivery of goods may be made by doing anything, which has the effect of putting the goods in the possession of the buyer, or any person authorized to hold them on his behalf.

Forms of delivery: Following are the kinds of delivery for transfer of possession:

  • Actual delivery: When the goods are physically delivered to the
  • Constructive delivery: When it is effected without any change in the custody or actual possession of the thing as in the case of delivery by attornment (acknowledgement) e.g., where a warehouseman holding the goods of A agrees to hold them on behalf of B, at A’s
  • Symbolic delivery: When there is a delivery of a thing in token of a transfer of something else, e., delivery of goods in the course of transit may be made by handing over documents of title to goods, like bill of lading or railway receipt or delivery orders or the key of a warehouse containing the goods is handed over to buyer.

 

  1. What do you understand by the term “unpaid seller” under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930? When can an unpaid seller exercise the right of stoppage of goods in transit?

Ans. Unpaid Seller: According to Section 45 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 the seller of goods is deemed to be an ‘Unpaid Seller’ when-

  • the whole of the price has not been paid or
  • a bill of exchange or other negotiable instrument has been received as conditional payment, and it has been dishonoured.

Right of stoppage of goods in transit

When the unpaid seller has parted with the goods to a carrier and the buyer has become insolvent, he can exercise this right by asking the carrier to return the goods back, or not to deliver the goods to the buyer.

However, the right of stoppage in transit is exercised only when the following conditions are fulfilled:

  • The seller must be
  • The seller must have parted with the possession of
  • The goods must be in the course of
  • The buyer must have become
  • The right is subject to provisions of the

 

  1. Mr. Samuel agreed to purchase 100 bales of cotton from Mr. Varun, out of his large stock and sent his men to take delivery of the goods. They could pack only 60 bales. Later on, there was an accidental fire and the entire stock was destroyed including 60 bales that were already packed. Referring to the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 explain as to who will bear the loss and to what extent?

Ans. Section 26 of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 provides that unless otherwise agreed, the goods remain at the seller’s risk until the property therein is transferred to the buyer, but when the property therein is transferred to the buyer, the goods are at buyer’s risk whether delivery has been made or not. Further Section 18 read with Section 23 of the Act provides that in a contract for the sale of unascertained goods, no property in the goods is transferred to the buyer, unless and until the goods are ascertained and where there is contract for the sale of unascertained or future goods by description, and goods of that description and in a deliverable s tate are unconditionally appropriated to the contract, either by the seller with the assent of the buyer or by the buyer with the assent of the seller, the property in the goods thereupon passes to the buyer. Such assent may be express or implied. Applying the aforesaid law to the facts of the case in hand, it is clear that Mr. Samuel has the right to select the good out of the bulk and he has sent his men for same purpose.

Hence the problem can be answered based on the following two assumptions and the answer will vary accordingly.

  • Where the bales have been selected with the consent of the buyer’s representatives: In this case, the property in the 60 bales has been transferred to the buyer and goods have been appropriated to the contract. Thus, loss arising due to fire in case of 60 bales would be borne by Mr. Samuel. As regards 40 bales, the loss would be borne by Mr. Varun, since the goods have not been identified and
  • Where the bales have not been selected with the consent of buyer’s representatives: In this case the property in the goods has not been transferred at all and hence the loss of 100 bales would be borne by Varun completely.

 

 

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